Cholestasis (reduction of bile flow or bile formation) occurs rarely in infants, but can be caused by serious, even life-threatening disease, that should be
treated pharmacologically or in some cases operatively. That is why early diagnosis is crucial. This paper presents current approach to infant cholestasis.

This paper presents summary of current ESPGHAN and NASPGHAN recommendations for evaluation of cholestasis in infant, especially guidelines for biliary
atresia diagnosis

Patent ductus arteriosus occurs more frequently in preterm infants. The presence of a hemodynamically significant PDA has a negative impact on
morbidity. Early, preventive administration of COX inhibitors (ibuprofen, indomethacin) did not decrease overall morbidity in preterm infants. The article
discusses the results of a Finnish, double-blind, randomized clinical trial, which evaluated the safety and the effects on the closure of ductus arteriosus
in very low gestational age neonates (< 32 weeks).

Comment on the article „The effect of paracetamol on closure of the ductus arteriosus in very premature infants”

The article presents the results of a double-blinded, randomized trial, conducted by Zucca et al., assessing the effect on lactation and the safety of galactogogues containing silymarin, phosphatidylserine and galega extract in mothers of premature neonates.

Comment on the article “Efficacy of galactogogues in mothers of preterm infants”

The article presents the results of a double-blinded, randomized trial, conducted by Akkermans et al., assessing the effect of consumption of fortified
modified milk containing iron and vitamin D by 1-3 year old children on their iron and vitamin D status.

Current standards of asthma exacerbations management in children under 6 years were presented. Each asthma exacerbation, as in older children,
requires the determination of the causes, risk factors and severity based on history, physical examination and measurement of the oxygen saturation
of hemoglobin or measuring the peak expiratory flow. The drug of choice in asthma exacerbation in this age group are short acting beta2-agonists
(SABA) administered by inhalation from pressurized metered dose inhaler (pMDI) with small volume inhalation chamber via face mask in children
≤ 3 years of age or via mouthpiece in older children. In some cases, it may be helpful to use combination of SABA with ipratropium bromide in nebulization
or pMDI or SABA nebulized (severe exacerbation). Second-line drug is corticosteroid administered orally and in appropriate cases, parenterally.
In children the use of oral salbutamol, nebulized epinephrine or hypertonic saline is not recommended. Oxygen therapy is an essential part of outpatients’
management.

Vaccines are a reasonable and modern means to prevent many dangerous, infectious diseases. Increasing popularity of anti-vaccination movements should
not be ignored. Nowadays, education of doctors and other health care professionals concerning safety, current indications and real contraindications of
vaccinations seems to be more crucial than ever. The less doctors know about vaccines, the less frequently they recommend vaccinations to their patients.
Consequently, the vast deficit of knowledge has become the main reason of vaccination avoidance and delay, even among doctors. This paper describes
popular misconceptions and false beliefs concerning vaccinations on one hand, and discusses real contraindications to vaccinations on the other.

Conjunctivitis is the most common eye disease in children. It is any inflammation of the conjunctiva, generally characterized by irritation, itching,
foreign body sensation, and watering and/or discharge in conjunctival sack. Conjunctivitis can be infectious and noninfectious. A clinical picture
depends on etiology and duration of the inflammation. The management includes the prophylactic procedure and the causal or symptomatic treatment.

Acne is a common skin disease both in adolescent and in children. Clinical presentation varies depending on the age of onset. Usually onset of acne in
adolescent patients or after puberty is not particularly worrying. Whereas onset of infantile acne or in children aged 1-7 years of age acne requires
diagnostic approach to rule out endocrine disorders, which could be responsible for the onset of skin lesions. In this study, we report review of current
literature data considering clinical presentation, differential diagnosis and treatment of acne in children and in adolescent. Special attention was paid to
demonstrate the differences in all of the presented age groups.

On 18th November 2016 World Health Organization announced that Zika virus (ZIKV) infection no longer represents a public health emergency of international
concern. However, ZIKV infection and associated consequences still represent a significant long-term problem for the public health, and
many aspects of this infection require clarification and large-scale sustained research. In this paper we present the current knowledge about the ZIKV
infection, its symptoms, consequences, as well as possible prevention methods.

Disorders of the immune system in patients with rheumatic diseases cause increased risk and severe course of infections. Infections affect the course
of rheumatic diseases, might cause severe complications and increase mortality. Safe and effective vaccinations are key to preventing many infections.
Vaccinations are often postponed or overlooked in patients with rheumatic diseases, both children and adults. The main concerns about the administration
of vaccines are connected with risk of a rheumatic disease exacerbation, uncertainty regarding induction of adequate immunity and risk of disseminated
infection.
The aim of this publication is to present current recommendations on vaccinations in rheumatic diseases based on the European League Against
Rheumatism (EULAR), the Polish National Vaccination Program (Program Szczepień Ochronnych, PSO) and the Advisory Committee on Immunization
Practices (ACIP). For practical reasons, the recommendations are divided into categories by activity of the disease, the intensity of immunosuppressive
therapy and the type of the recommended vaccinations.

Anthropometric measurements are used to assess development, growth rate and nutritional status for children and adolescents. This article describes
how to measure body height/length, body weight and waist circumference in the children with developmental disorders such as asymmetry, body
contractures and obesity.

Achalasia is a neurodegenerative disorder of the esophagus, characterized by the absence of peristalsis and impaired relaxation of the lower esophageal
sphincter. The incidence of achalasia in childhood is 0.11/100 000 children per year. Older children usually present with progressive dysphagia to
solids and liquids, regurgitation of undigested food and saliva and weight loss. Infants and younger children may present atypically with feeding difficulties
and recurrent pneumonia. The disease in children is often misdiagnosed as gastroesophageal reflux disease. The gold standard for the diagnosis
is esophageal high resolution manometry. Barium esophagram and esophagogastroscopy are complementary tests to manometry in the diagnosis
and management of achalasia. Achalasia is a chronic condition without cure, but symptoms can be relieved by reducing the hypertonicity of the
lower esophageal sphincter by endoscopic (graded balloon pneumatic dilation) or surgical means (laparoscopic Heller myotomy). Recently, the development
of new minimally invasive technique (peroral endoscopic myotomy) has been tested in pediatric age group. Only few pediatric case series
have been described to date. The technique seems to be safe and equally effective in children when compare to adults, but future prospective studies
will need to be conducted to ascertain the first observations.

Breath tests represent a valid, non-invasive and safe diagnostic tool for many gastroenterological conditions. They are currently widely used in pediatrics, especially
for the diagnosis of various types of sugar malabsorption, small bowel bacterial overgrowth or Helicobacter pylori infection. The most popular tests
are the hydrogen and methane breath tests, however in recent years there has been an increasing interest in carbon dioxide breath tests. This review is aimed
at providing an overview of the relevant applications, technique and interpretation of results of various breath tests in children.

FITS method – Functional Individual Therapy of Scoliosis was created in 2004 and it is used for diagnosis of children with scoliosis, body posture default
and Scheuermann disease. The authors of this method are physiotherapists from Poland – Marianna Białek PT, Ph.D and Andrzej M’hango PT, MSc, D.O.
FITS Method consists of 3 phases:
1st – making the patient aware and examination,
2nd – preparing for the correction: sensory motor balance training, detection and elimination of myofascial restrictions which limit a three-plane
corrective movement,
3rd – three-dimensional correction of the spine, building and stabilization of corrective movement patterns in functional positions.
The key element of the method is specific functional diagnosis and detailed clinical examination that is the base for applying appropriate therapeutic
techniques, individually matched for every patient. The method can be used independently as a preventative treatment of scoliosis or combined with
a back brace treatment. It can also be applied as a preparation of a patient for surgical correction of scoliosis. The effectiveness of FITS method has been
recognised by International Society on Scoliosis Orthopaedic and Rehabilitation Treatment (SOSORT).

Introduction: Pregnancy is a special period in a woman’s life which needs the highest nutritional requirements. Increased demand for vitamins and
minerals with relatively little increased demand for energy is forcing to careful laying of diet and increasingly turning to the use of supplementation.
The pregnant woman needs to ensure optimal supply of all the necessary vitamins and minerals, because even the smallest of shortages may adversely
affect the child’s development.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess the knowledge of pregnant women about the need for supplementation in pregnancy, ascertain the
reasons for the use of supplements, and the frequency of their use.

Materials and methods: The study group consisted of 150 pregnant women aged between 18 and 45 years from the province of podkarpackie. The
research tool was the self-designed questionnaire survey, which included questions that concerned the use of dietary supplements by pregnant
women.

Results: It was found that 74% of women reaching for supplements during pregnancy and more than 75% from the beginning of its duration. Much
less, 40% apply supplements by becoming pregnant. The primary motive for the interest in them is pro-health value of supplements for the child
and the woman herself and the most common incentive for regular use are medical consultation. Predominatingly women reach for folic acid (83.3%), unfortunately only 28% of women apply it before becoming pregnant. In analysed group the usage of supplements containing vitamins and
minerals are frequent (60.4% of interviewees), the usage of remaining supplements are lesser: probiotic preparations (35.1%), products containing
DHA (25.2%), iron (19.8%), vitamin D3 (9.9% ), magnesium B6 (5.4%) and iodine (8.1%).

Conclusions: Awareness of pregnant women on the need for supplementation is common, but possessed the knowledge is not enough. There is
a need to raise awareness that some supplements, such as folic acid, or DHA, can be used routinely, and the decision taking other vitamins and
minerals should be consulted with a specialist, it may be very important for a healthy pregnancy.

Death of a child in particular babies and small children is always a traumatic experience for both parent and medical staff. The purpose of this study was to
analyze causes of death in children under 5 years of age in the years 2003-2013 conducted a single center in Poznan.

Material and Methods: The study group included 82 of the 154 children whose death occurred in the period from 1 January 2003 to 31 December 2013.
Retrospective study was subjected to medical records of hospitalized patients, and included in the analysis: sex and age of the patients, the month of death,
cause of death and the initial comorbidities.

Results: The highest number of deaths were recorded in 2008 (15.85%), 2007 (13.41%) and in 2003 and 2012 (12.20%) and the lowest in 2009 (3.66%). In the
group of children boys were 56.10% and 43.90% girls. In the total group and in girls observed a downward trend in mortality. The average age was 15 months
+/- SD 15 months. The largest group consisted of infant deaths (57.32%). The greatest number of deaths were recorded respectively in the month: February
(n = 11), July and September (n = 9). The most common underlying cause of death among children under 5 years of age were certain infectious and parasitic
diseases (15.85%), congenital defects and trauma (14.63%) and respiratory diseases (8.54%). Among the comorbidities most frequent respiratory diseases.

Conclusions: The largest group of patients were boys and babies. The most common underlying cause of death were certain infectious and parasitic diseases
and congenital defects, injuries and respiratory diseases. Among boys the most common underlying cause of death were certain infectious and parasitic
diseases, and in girls congenital defects and injuries.

In Poland there is no organized forms of education focused on parents of the newborns especially of premature born children. For these newborns with low
and extremely low birth weight the education and gradual preparation for the role of the parents of children who need special care and protection sometimes
for many years, are very important. The birth of a premature infant is stressful for family members. Educational programs for expectant parents are
to improve knowledge, skills and competences in relation to specific health problems affecting the course of pregnancy including the knowledge of premature
newborns and are an extremely important element of the communication and cooperation of medical staff with parents. In this educational program
is very important to overcoming the barrier of uncertainty and fear understand the importance and significance of their participation in the care of the
child. In the USA but also in Europe are more and more popular Family-Centered Care (FCC) and care focused on family, which bring together family members
of patients.

The aim of this article is to present the history of the creation and tasks of specialization in the field of neonatology and three-level care system in Poland.
Currently existing needs of intensive newborn care in terms of available places and equipment needs have been defined. Both the current scope of newborn
screening carried out after birth and research projects conducted within the last few decades have been presented.

Human milk bank is a professional laboratory established in hospital to give the human milk to infant’s couldn’t be breastfeed by own mother for undesirable
reason. Human milk banks in Poland was created on the initiative of breastfeeding mothers, convinced of the value of human milk. In 2006, the Association
for Human Milk Bank in Poland was established promote human milk banking among parents and medical Staff. Since 2009, the achievements and the
statutory objectives of the Association took over the Human Milk Bank Foundation, the NGO close cooperating with European Milk Bank Association. So far
Human Milk Bank Foundation supported to five milk banks in Poland and a few more are in the stage of organization. Milk banks in Poland operate based
on a program of Foundation titled „Human milk for premature”. Human Milk Bank Foundation is very active in cooperation with government in introducing
donor milk feeding as a medical procedure in Polish law. Human milk banks are not only service to collect donated milk and distribute the milk but also
a possibility to meet mother suffer from lactation problems with those that successfully breastfeeding. Donating milk is a fulfilment of motherhood for many
women and way of manifestation of altruism, charity, empathy and disinterested help.

Rehabilitation is an important part of treatment in the neonatal intensive care units. Great variety of pathologies observed in this age group requires
various forms of rehabilitation. Premature newborns constitute a particular group of patients. The most important pathologies appearing in the newborns
have been discussed in the context of rehabilitation methods to be applied, and the most effective methods of physiotherapy have been presented: positioning,
postural handling, amending neurodevelopment by means of Vojta method, elements of breathing rehabilitation and other supporting therapies.