The global epidemic of obesity is a major public health problem because obesity has important consequences for the health and lives of individuals and society. The article discusses the risk factors of obesity by periods of human development and health consequences of obesity. Intergenerational transmission of obesity cycle is presented. Interventions with regard to modifiable risk factors of obesity, which could prevent obesity (primordial, primary, and secondary prevention of obesity), are discussed.

This paper presents summary of ESPGHAN recommendation about indications, risk of complications and contraindications of liver biopsy in children with liver disease.

New revision of GINA (Global INitiative for Asthma) has been published in 2014. An update has been published in may 2015. The aim of this initiativeis to popularize the knowledge about diagnosis, treatment or prevention of asthma. This paper presents the most important changes in proceeding in children.

We present the results of the LEAP study whose primary objective was to answer the question of whether early introduction of peanuts, instead of the current strategy of avoiding their consumption in the first year of life, prevents or enhances the development of allergies. The conclusions ofthe study are discussed.

Headaches are one of the most common complains either in children or in teenagers. They can appear in every age, they can have different causes and different clinical symptoms. The diagnosis of headaches should be careful and extensive, because very often they are a result of serious processes such as brain tumours or arteriovenous malformations. The author presents current international classification of headaches, discusses the criteria ofthe diagnosis, emphasizes the significance of medical interview, shows the diagnostic methods, as well as the indications to neuroradiological and electrophysiological investigations.

Fever is a common symptom in children, however knowledge about management in the course of it is insufficient. Errors committed in this respect, not only parents, but also doctors. Concerns relate to methods for marking and interpreting the results of temperature measurement, the dosage of drugs, the use of physical methods of cooling the body, as well as reaching for antibiotics. Therefore, to popularize the latest knowledge about fever constantly has its justification. The paper is a sectional information concerning fever in children, from the recognition by the treatment, and education ending.

Assessment of the health status of oral cavity should be a part of paediatric examination. It enable to estimate of development, risk factors of oralcavity disorders and pathologic lesions involving treatment. The symptoms of general disorders are often found in the oral cavity. In paper were shownma in principles of dental status assessment in children: number of teeth, teething, position in dental arch, status of teeth’s hard tissue – presence ofdevelopmental disturbances and acquired pathology – tooth wear, erosions and caries. Authors presented symptoms of most frequent pathologies in theoral cavity in children and local and their general etiologic factors. The care was taken of dangers relevant with complications of caries and necessity of paediatricians inclusion to caries prophylaxis. Symptoms of teeth disorders were illustrated.

Two important components of child care, the main goal of parents and guardians, are education and proper actions, which also include the area of dental health.Oral hygiene is mentioned as one of the most important methods of prevention of oral diseases, especially dental caries and periodontal disease. Hygienic procedures in the child’s mouth should begin as soon as possible. They should be carried out by a parent or guardian or under their supervision. A balanced diet is extremely important for tooth development and thus on their health. Proper oral procedures allow to maintain a healthy oral cavity, they accustom children to the performed procedures and finally, they form the correct habits of oral cavity hygiene.

ABSTRACTConstipation is a common problem in children. Most cases of constipation are children diagnosed as having functional constipation by using RomeIII criteria. According to joint statement of European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) and North American Society forPediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition (NASPGHAN), polyethylene glycol (PEG) is nowadays recommended as the first-line treatment for children presenting with fecal impaction as well as in maintenance treatment of functional constipation. The current paper presents PEG biochemistry andmechanisms of action. Review of clinical studies assessing the efficacy of PEG in children with functional constipation and comparing PEG with otherlaxatives was presented. Special attention was paid to finding the optimal dose of PEG for the effective treatment of children.

The study presents comparatively normal and compensatory features of stabilization in two boys, one of whom with normal posture and the other onewith faulty posture. According to the neurodevelopmental concept, body stabilization is conditioned by postural tone that is generated by CNS. In case of even mild dysfunctions of CNS the postural tone is decreased, which causes involvement of different types of compensation mechanisms in order to obtain body stabilization. Features of compensation are visible in:
- static conditions, as postural faults
- improper arrangement of body segments,
- dynamic conditions, in the form of difficulties in accomplishment of many motor acts.
The boy with faulty posture has difficulties in performing the motor tasks. This means that proper performance of movement is conditioned by the abilityto assume correct initial position. Taking the above into consideration, different motor tasks carried out by the two boys were presented on the photographs. The boy with faulty posturehas problems with central stabilization and either uses distal stabilization in order to obtain a given position or he simply cannot accomplish a task.

Hepatitis A is a self-limited, acute infectious disease caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV). Most commonly HAV is transmitted by the fecal-oral route,rarely by blood or sexually. Currently, the epidemiological situation in the world varies among regions, each year there are approximately 1.4 million of new cases. Poland is among the countries with a low incidence rate. In the recent years, typically there were under 100 new cases of hepatitis Aannually, however, every few years a singular increase in the number of cases occurred and an amount of new cases surmounted to a few hundred. Good epidemiological situation leads to a lack of natural immunity among children and adults in Poland. This in turn increases the risk of acquiring a HAV infection in countries with higher endemicity, that are frequent holiday destinations. In the absence of natural immunity only vaccinations are an effective way of protection against the infection

Newborn infants, particularly preterm more often require transfusions of blood components compared to other patients. Preparation and implementation of procedures and recommendations regarding the indications for their use and the widespread prevention of anemia contributes to a significant reduction in the amount of transfusions performed. Currently, there is no clearly defined indications for supply of red blood cells, various data – both morphological and clinical apply in different parts of the world and of Europe. On the basis of the current recommendations of scientific societies have developed new recommendations for infants with low and very low birth weight, which has been implemented from 2013 in the Department of Neonatology, Medical University in Wrocław. Revised procedure allowed limit the supply of blood components, without adversely affecting the clinical condition of patients. The paper presents not only the recommendations regarding the supply of blood and blood components in neonatology, but also the applicable legal regulations in Poland.

Article is about how to perform ultrasound of the urinary tract in children. The authors discuss about the indications, techniques, research, anatomy ultrasound and reference values for basic measurements.

Children whose mothers used medications or stimulants during pregnancy may develop with drawal symptoms after birth, as the substances are nolonger administered. Symptoms are diverse and may be suggestive of other life-threatening conditions with different treatment protocols. Therefore, caregivers should remember about the possibility of infants developing the newborn abstinence syndrome and they should know the recommended treatment. This paper discusses the appropriate treatment of children whose mothers used pharmaceuticals or stimulants during pregnancy.

Background: Prenatal development is often disturbed by genetic abnormalities. A unique set of congenital defects forms a congenital genetic syndrome – a disease or disorder that has more than one identifying feature or symptom. The syndromes with orofacial and hearing disorders are vitalfor audiological clinical practice.

Objectives: Assessment of the hearing loss in children with congenital genetic syndromes; analysis of indications for hearing aids, two-year observation of their hearing levels.

Material and methods: 19 children suffering from 14 different congenital geneticsyndromes, that were admitted to hospital as a result of the newborn hearing screening.

Results: All types of hearing loss were diagnosed: perceptive(n = 7), conductive (n = 6), mixed (n = 3), central (n = 1). The normal hearing level was observed in two children. Most children had indications forhearing aids. The concomitance of two sensory defects (hearing loss and abnormal sight) was observed in 7 children.

Conclusions: 1. Audiologicalmedical assessment should be a part of medical care in case of genetic congenital defects, especially when the hearing loss is a part of the syndromebut also when the orofacial deformities are visible.
2. Hearing aids and early hearing rehabilitation are crucial to speech development and to minimize children`s handicap.

Gastric varices can be formed as a result of portal hypertension. Variceal bleeding is a life-threatening condition which is the reason why in some cases prophylaxis seems to be essential. This case report presents a 10 year old patient’s endoscopic treatment process using n-butyl-2-cyanoacrylate.