2015 ERC guidelines on resuscitation and support of transition of neonates at birth update the previous version of the guidelines from 2010. Among the
main changes are a strong emphasis placed on maintaining neonate’s body temperature between 36,5 and 37,5°C (temperature is a strong predictor of
outcomes and a healthcare quality indicator), introduction of the term “support of transition” and an expanded recommendation regarding the use of
CPAP in preterm children with respiratory distress. Lung inflation and ventilation are the most important interventions and should be undertaken within
1 min from birth in non-breathing infants – in most cases opening of the airways and aerating the lungs are all that is necessary. Appropriate lung inflation
and ventilation are also crucial in infants that require chest compressions (3:1 compressions to breaths ratio) and pharmacotherapy.

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Both, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and World Health Organization (WHO) announced the infection Zika as a global threat to
public health because of the possible link with birth defects of the central nervous system (microcephaly, intracranial calcification). We present the current
state of knowledge on this topic.

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The paper summarizes current recommendations on the prevention of food allergy in children through early dietary modifications. Exclusive breastfeeding
for 6 months is a desirable goal. Infants with a documented hereditary risk of allergy (i.e., an affected parent and/or sibling), who cannot be breastfed
exclusively, may receive a formula with confirmed reduced allergenicity as a means of reducing the risk of atopic dermatitis, although different opinions
exist. There is no convincing scientific evidence that the avoidance or delayed introduction of potentially allergenic foods reduces allergies in infants considered
to be at increased risk for the development of allergic diseases or in those not considered to be at increased risk. New data confirm the safety of
early introduction of potentially allergenic foods, although strong data on the efficacy of such approach apply mainly to peanut allergy. Different opinions
exist with regard to the use of pro/prebiotics for preventing allergy as it remains unclear which pro/prebiotic may be considered.

Head trauma in children is one of the most common reasons of pediatric counselling and referral to the hospital. Terminology and management
of concussion/mild head trauma is still controversial. Recent suggestions have introduced the concept of rest, limitation of analgetic drugs and
gradual return to physical and mental activity. Younger children require more time to recover. Although most children recover in days or weeks
after concussion, about 10% of them develop symptoms of postconcussion syndrome. For these children, multidimensional neuropsychiatrical
rehabilitation is necessary for recovery.

Bronchiolitis is an acute inflammatory disease of lower respiratory tract. It occurs in children younger than 2 years. At the beginning, we observe
prodromal symptoms of upper respiratory tract; then inflammation extends to the smallest parts of bronchial tree. The youngest infants, especially
prematurely-born and children with chronic lung disease, congenital heart failure, immunodeficiency and with Down’s syndrome are in the elevatedrisk-
group of severce course of disease. Clinical manifestation of bronchiolitis covers signs of expiratory dyspnea, accompanied by wheezes and crackles
in auscultation. The disease is diagnosed on the basis of clinical signs, any additional tests are not required. Oxygentherapy and adequate hydration are
the only methods of treatment proven effective.

Respiratory physiotherapy is an integral part of the overall children therapy applied in the treatment of respiratory disorders. The systematic and
regular use of chest physiotherapy relieves symptoms, improves efficiency and physical fitness of the organism and the patient’s quality of life.
Paediatric pulmonology physiotherapy should be considered long-term should also take into account development of posture and physical activity
of a child.
The aim of this study is to present practical, useful forms of bronchial drainage, breathing exercises and physiotherapy treatment in the light
of importance of children physiotherapy in respiratory diseases.

The incidence of hyperthyroidism in children is approximately 1 to 100 000 per year and 96% its cases are due to autoimmunological process.
It is characterized by increased concentration of free thyroid hormone. The most common cause of hyperthyroidism in children is Graves’ disease. It is due
to the effect of TSH receptor stimulating antibodies (TRAb) which stimulate the thyroid to produce excess hormones. Besides typical signs and symptoms,
some characteristic features of hyperthyroidism could be present in paediatric population: advanced bone age, precocious puberty, learning difficulties,
neuropsychiatric disturbances. The antithyroid drugs as the initial treatment are used, however the remission rate in children is significantly lower than
in adults, and reaches about 30% after 2 years of treatment. Additionally, 131I therapy and surgery are considered the optional treatment. Less common
causes of hyperthyroidism in children are Hashimoto thyroiditis, autonomous adenoma or neonatal hyperthyroidism due to maternal TRAb antibodies.

Thyroid ultrasound is a simple method showing the morphology and supporting the assessment of thyroid function in pediatric patients. The paper
presents indications, technical aspects of the examination, explains ultrasound anatomy and discusses the proper picture of the thyroid gland.

Necrotizing enterocolitis is the most common illness of digestive tract in preterm infants. Intestinal lesions may significantly influence general condition of
a patient and cause serious complications. The paper describes pathogenesis of NEC and factors modifying morbidity. Clinical picture depends on the size
of intestinal lesions and reaction to treatment. Standardy

There are 14 million adolescent pregnancies each year and they constitute up to 11% of all pregnancies worldwide. Adolescent pregnancies are a serious
public health problem, as they are linked to an increased risk of medical complications for both the mother and the child. They also worsen socio-economical
factors in young women. A majority of young women don’t have a sufficient knowledge about contraception. There are many contraceptive
methods available, which were described in the article.

The first year of a child’s life is the foundation for further human growth. In an infancy phase we can observe a dynamic increase of brain growth: expansion
of dendrites, the formation of synapses and myelination. The brain of an infant is characterized by high plasticity, but also shortages in sensitivity. It is very
important to ensure that the infant will get conditions appropriate to its needs and abilities. The article describes, in a multidimensional way, the development
of visual stimulation and other baby’s cognitive functions. Firstly, it was assumed that the proper growth needed proper physical growth as well as
the influence of the nearest environment, and also proper nutrition. Secondly, each area of the human’s functioning, such as the senses and motor skills,
interact with one another. So when stimulating eyes, other areas of growth are stimulated too. The article describes the importance of visual perception in
the child’s growth, developing new visual skills in an infant and presents practical examples of ways to stimulate vision. The article also includes worrying
situations, possibly reflecting disorders of development in the first year of life. In the article one can read about the role of DHA, AA and ALA in the growth
of vision and the central nervous system as well as recommendations of supplementation for children, pregnant women and lactating mothers.

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Leukemias are the most common type of childhood cancer with acute lymphoblastic leukemia representing a majority of cases. Children affected by
leukemia receive systemic chemotherapy, which is the most widely used method of treatment in this type of cancer. The disease itself, as well as very
aggravating treatment, is not indifferent to the child’s well-being. It brings many complications that can significantly reduce patient’s quality of life during
therapy. One of the most common and disturbing side effects is oral mucositis. Although the mechanism of its formation is already well known, still no
effective, widely acceptable protocol of its prevention and management has been developed. The aim of this review was to collect reports based on
scientific evidence used in the prevention and treatment of inflammation of the oral mucosa in the course of chemotherapy in children.

Intestinal microbiota plays an important role in human health from birth. Optimal bacterial colonization is essential for further development
and correct function of many organs and systems. Gut microbiota is responsible for many complex functions such as digestion and absorption
within gastrointestinal tract but also for less straightforward activities such as activation and maturation of the immune system. Furthermore
intestinal microbiota may also affect the brain and behavior through the gut-brain axis. Without bacteria the homeostasis of the organism can
be disturbed. Optimization of the intestinal microbiota profile by pre- and probiotics can be an important therapeutic strategy in the prevention
of conditions linked with intestinal dysbiosis.

High flow nasal cannula (HFNC) is a noninvasive method of ventilatory support and may be widely used in neonatal wards, especially those that do
not have nurses trained in the use of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). Potentially, HFNC may be an alternative to this method in numerous
patients. The number of adverse events during the use of both methods remains similar, however, CPAP causes more nasal traumas, especially within
extremely premature newborns and in babies with extremely low birth weight

Marfan syndrome is a genetic disorder of connective tissue caused by mutations in the fibrillin-1 gene. It is characterized by diverse clinical manifestations,
typically involving the cardiovascular, musculoskeletal and ocular systems. The average life expectancy of untreated patients with Marfan syndrome
is 40 years with aortic aneurysm dissections as the leading cause of death. Abnormalities in the cardiovascular system are usually asymptomatic, but if left
untreated frequently lead to premature death. Preventive surgery of aortic aneurysm prolongs patient life. Therefore, the knowledge of Marfan syndrome
enables early diagnosis, which is crucial to implement appropriate preventive measures.

Glycogen storage diseases (GSD) belong to inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism. They consist in an excessive accumulation of glycogen in the body
organs due to the deficient activity of one of the enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism. Among them, type Ib (GSD-Ib) has been associated with
neutropenia and abnormalities of neutrophil function, which are thought to be the cause of a chronic gastrointestinal inflammation (inflammatory bowel
disease, IBD) in these patients. However, current data shows an increased prevalence of IBD in GSD-Ia as well, although this type of GSD-I is not associated
with neutopenia. Pathogenesis of intestinal inflammation in these patients has not been recognized yet.

Nowadays autism is one of the major public health concern in many countries. Along with the observed increase of an index of autism spectrum
disorders incidence the number of studies of this disorder. Autism is a heterogeneous disorder. Many children and adolescents have medically relevant
disorders that may negatively impact their growth. Only few studies have evaluated growth status in children with ASD . This article attempts to
compare scientific data of anthropometric characteristics of children and adolescent with ASD: head circumference, body height and body mass index.
Presented studies suggest that autistic children have abnormal pattern of growth and are at high risk of developing overweight and obesity. Article also
summarizes factors associated with growth disorders in patients with ASD, presents causes of discrepant findings and guidance for the future research.

Background: The increasing number of injuries is related to the dynamic development of our civilization and requires repeated verifications of their
etiology and epidemiology. Craniocerebral injury (CCI) is frequently a part of a multi-organ injury, substantially determining patient`s condition and
prognosis. In children, injury-related deaths are in 65% caused by an injury of the nervous system in multi-organ injuries, in 32% by an isolated CCI and
only in 3% they are caused by injuries, which do not involve the CNS. It is worth noticing that alcohol consumption became a new etiological factor
of craniocerebral injuries in under-age people and that the number of alcohol related injuries is increasing. Alcohol related CCIs are often severe and
negatively affect prognosis, as they are correlated with a higher risk of a life threatening situations.
Objectives: The aim of the study was to evaluate the severity and the character of craniocerebral injuries in a group of patients, aged 9 to 18, who
either had or had not consumed alcohol before sustaining CCI.
Materials and the methods: The study was carried out between November 2007 and December 2012. The case group was composed of 49 patients
(average age 14,78±1,62 years old) who had sustained CCI after alcohol consumption. 62 patients were qualified for the control group (average age
13,42±2,56 years old). The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the UJCM (no. KBET/8/B/2010).
Results: The craniocerebral injuries of 9-18 years old patients sustained under the influence of alcohol differed from those of the control group.
Injuries of upper-limbs, facial bones (viscerocranium) as well as brain concussion were significantly more frequently observed in the case group.

CCI sustained under alcohol influence were more frequently accompanied by symptoms of increased intracranial pressure. On the other hand a higher
incidence of linear fractures of the scull accompanied by an epidural hematoma was observed in the control group. In spite of the similar injury area,
their consequences were more severe in children from the case group. The character of the sustained injuries was determined by a mechanism of injury.
Conclusions: Craniocerebral injuries sustained by 9-18 years old children who had consumed alcohol have different characteristics than the injuries
sustained by patients from the control group. Similar area of injury results in a more severe course of illness in case of alcohol consumption.

Background: Hearing loss is the most common congenital disorder in newborns. The late diagnosis and lack of treatment can lead to abnormal speech
and intellect development. In 2003, Polish Universal Neonatal Hearing Screening Program (PUNHSP) has started. It provides an opportunity of hearing
screening test in every newborn child on the second day after delivery.
Objectives: The role of the family doctor and pediatrician in monitoring hearing loss of children participating in PUNHSP.
Material and methods: Since the beginning of the program there are 4 679 826 children registered in the Central Database (CDB).
Results: 8.9% children registered in CDB required subsequent visits at ENT and audiological centers due to suspected hearing loss. Of this group
45.3% were not consulted. Among the children who completed the diagnosis in 12 555 children hearing impairment of various types and degrees was
confirmed. It is estimated to be 3 per 1000 births in Poland.
Conclusions: Low referral rate to the ENT centers was partly caused by lack of parent’s knowledge about the need to further diagnosis in children with
suspected hearing loss. Therefore, family doctors and pediatricians should take an active part in the program, to inform patients (parents) about the need
to monitor the status of the child’s hearing.

Introduction: Toe walking is one of the variants of physiological gait that appears quite often in healthy children till the end of the third year of life. If persistent,
it requires thorough examination and assessment.
Depend on method of heel rolling the following are applied in the orthopedic management:
a. botulinum toxin injections and corrective plaster casts as well as redressive exercises after casts removal;
b. surgical Achilles tendons lengthening.
In the characteristics of examined subjects hyperlordosis is described. Toe walking can constitute compensation of low postural tone through use of Putti’s
mechanism.
Aim: The aim of the study is to present results of management of the boy with idiopathic gait.
Material and methods: Postural and motor patterns were assessed, functional lengths of hamstring and triceps surae were measured.
The management lasted for 6 weeks and included:
1. placing plaster casts on the feet and shinws;
2. exercises dedicated to body stabilization;
3. exercises improving functional length of hamstrings and triceps surae.
Results: Gait pattern improvement was obtained. Boy began to walk on whole feet and was able to maintain standing position.
Conclusions: Procedures we applied may help patients with idiopathic toe walking.

Orbital abscess is rare in neonates and can lead to severe complications. It originates mostly from ethmoid sinusitis. The aim of this paper is to present
a case of 16- day old neonate with orbital abscess secondary to acute ethmoiditis and to discuss the particularities of the disease in neonates.

Shwachman-Diamond syndrome is a rare multi-systemic disease; its trait of inheritance is autosomal recessive. The most common manifestation is exocrine
pancreatic dysfunction and hematologic aberrations, however in the course of SDS can occur various abnormalities of skeleton and immunological
or gastroenterological abnormalities. The wide broad of symptoms, presented from various organs and systems, is a main cause of diagnostic difficulties.
The paper presents case reports of two patients in whom was established a diagnosis of Shwachman-Diamond syndrome.